The History of Computers

中文版可见（神作必看）计算机发展史：从机械计数到智能时代的技术演进_busicom计算器-CSDN博客

Introduction​

The computer, as one of the most remarkable inventions in human history, has profoundly transformed every aspect of human life, from work and study to communication and entertainment. Tracing the development history of computers is not only a review of technological progress but also an exploration of human wisdom and the spirit of innovation. This paper aims to comprehensively and systematically introduce the evolution process of computers, starting from the earliest computing tools, through the emergence and development of mechanical computers and electronic computers, to the modern computers with diverse forms and powerful functions, and finally look forward to the future development trends of computers. By sorting out this long history, we can better understand the profound impact of technological innovation on society and human civilization.​

Early Computing Tools​

Abacus​

The abacus is one of the earliest computing tools used by humans, with a history dating back thousands of years. Its origin can be traced to ancient civilizations such as China, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. The basic structure of an abacus consists of a frame with rods, and beads strung on the rods. Each bead represents a specific number, and by moving the beads, people can perform arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.​

In China, the abacus has a long history. As early as the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, there were records of similar computing tools. After continuous improvement, the abacus gradually formed a fixed form. It is usually divided into upper and lower parts. The upper part has two beads, each representing 5, and the lower part has five beads, each representing 1. By moving the beads up and down, people can quickly complete various arithmetic operations. For a long time, the abacus played an important role in commercial transactions, accounting, and scientific research in China. It not only improved the efficiency of calculation but also laid the foundation for the development of mathematical thinking.​

In other parts of the world, the abacus also has different forms and usages. For example, the abacus used in ancient Rome has a different structure from the Chinese abacus, but its basic principle of using beads for calculation is the same. The abacus, as a simple and practical computing tool, has been widely used for thousands of years and is a precious heritage in the history of human computing.​

Pascal's Calculator​

In the 17th century, the French mathematician Blaise Pascal invented the Pascal's Calculator, which was one of the earliest mechanical computing devices. This calculator was mainly used to perform addition and subtraction operations. Its working principle is based on the gear transmission mechanism. When a gear rotates a full circle, it drives the next gear to rotate one tooth, thereby realizing the carry operation.​

The Pascal's Calculator has a certain practical value. It can help people complete simple arithmetic operations more quickly and accurately, reducing the errors caused by manual calculation. Although its function is relatively simple and its structure is not very complex, it marked the beginning of human beings' attempt to use mechanical devices to replace manual calculation, laying a foundation for the development of subsequent mechanical computers.​

Leibniz's Stepped Reckoner​

After Pascal, the German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz improved on the basis of Pascal's Calculator and invented the Leibniz's Stepped Reckoner. This computing device not only can perform addition and subtraction operations but also can complete multiplication and division operations through repeated addition and subtraction, which is a significant progress compared with Pascal's Calculator.​

The core component of Leibniz's Stepped Reckoner is a stepped cylinder, which can mesh with different gears to realize multiplication and division operations. The invention of this device expanded the application scope of mechanical computing tools and promoted the development of mechanical computing technology.​

Mechanical Computers​

Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine​

In the 19th century, the British mathematician Charles Babbage put forward the concept of the Analytical Engine, which is regarded as the prototype of the modern computer. The Analytical Engine was designed to be a general-purpose computing device that could perform various arithmetic operations according to pre-set programs.​

The structure of the Analytical Engine includes several key components: the store, which is used to store data; the mill, which is equivalent to the arithmetic logic unit and is responsible for performing arithmetic operations; the control unit, which controls the operation of the entire machine according to the program; and the input and output devices, which are used to input data and programs and output the calculation results.​

Although Charles Babbage did not successfully build a complete Analytical Engine during his lifetime due to technical and financial constraints, his design ideas had a profound impact on the development of computers. The concept of programming, which he proposed, became one of the core ideas of modern computers. Ada Lovelace, a British mathematician, is regarded as the world's first programmer because she wrote programs for the Analytical Engine.​

Hollerith's Tabulating Machine​

In the late 19th century, the American statistician Herman Hollerith invented the Hollerith's Tabulating Machine to solve the problem of the U.S. census data processing. Before that, the processing of census data relied on manual work, which was time-consuming and error-prone. The Hollerith's Tabulating Machine used punched cards to store data, and through electrical contacts, it could quickly count and sort the data.​

The working process of the Hollerith's Tabulating Machine is as follows: first, the data is punched into cards, with each hole representing a specific piece of information; then, the punched cards are put into the machine, and the machine uses metal pins to contact the cards. When a pin encounters a hole, an electrical circuit is formed, which drives the counter to count. This machine greatly improved the efficiency of data processing. In the 1890 U.S. census, the use of Hollerith's Tabulating Machine reduced the processing time from several years to a few months, which was a great success.​

The invention of Hollerith's Tabulating Machine not only solved the practical problem of census data processing but also laid the foundation for the development of data processing technology. Later, companies such as IBM were developed on the basis of this technology.​

The Birth of Electronic Computers​

Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC)​

In the late 1930s and early 1940s, John Vincent Atanasoff, a professor at Iowa State College, and his student Clifford Berry invented the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC), which is recognized as the first electronic computer in the world. The ABC used vacuum tubes as switching elements and adopted binary arithmetic, which was a significant breakthrough compared with previous mechanical computers.​

The ABC was mainly designed to solve linear equations. Its structure included a memory composed of capacitors, which could store data, and a arithmetic unit that used vacuum tubes to perform arithmetic operations. Although the ABC had many limitations, such as a small memory capacity and the inability to store programs, it pioneered the use of electronic components in computers, opening a new era of electronic computing.​

ENIAC​

During World War II, due to the needs of military calculations, such as the calculation of artillery firing tables, the United States government funded the development of the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC). ENIAC was completed in 1946 by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania.​

ENIAC was a huge machine, weighing about 30 tons, occupying an area of about 167 square meters, and using more than 18,000 vacuum tubes. It could perform 5,000 addition operations per second, which was a revolutionary improvement compared with previous computing devices. However, ENIAC also had obvious shortcomings. It used wired programming, and changing the program required rewiring, which was very time-consuming and inconvenient.​

Despite its limitations, the successful development of ENIAC marked the birth of the electronic computer, which was a milestone in the history of computer development. It demonstrated the huge potential of electronic technology in computing and laid the foundation for the development of subsequent electronic computers.​

EDVAC​

After the invention of ENIAC, John von Neumann, a Hungarian-American mathematician, put forward the concept of the stored-program computer, which had a profound impact on the design of computers. Based on this concept, the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) was developed.​

The core idea of the stored-program computer is to store the program and data in the same memory, so that the computer can automatically fetch instructions from the memory and execute them in sequence. This greatly simplifies the process of program modification and improves the flexibility and efficiency of the computer.​

EDVAC, designed according to this idea, had a more reasonable structure than ENIAC. It included a central processing unit (CPU), memory, input and output devices, etc., which laid the foundation for the basic structure of modern computers, known as the von Neumann architecture.​

The First Generation of Computers (1940s - 1950s)​

Characteristics​

The first generation of computers mainly used vacuum tubes as the main electronic components. Vacuum tubes are large in size, generate a lot of heat, and have high power consumption. Therefore, the first generation of computers was huge in size, expensive, and had poor reliability. They often broke down and required frequent maintenance.​

In terms of memory, the first generation of computers mainly used magnetic drums and magnetic cores. Magnetic drums had a small storage capacity and slow access speed, which limited the performance of the computer to a certain extent.​

In terms of programming, the first generation of computers used machine language and assembly language. Machine language is a binary code that can be directly recognized by the computer, but it is difficult to understand and remember. Assembly language uses mnemonics to represent instructions, which is relatively easier to use than machine language, but it still requires programmers to have a deep understanding of the computer's hardware structure.​

Representative Machines​

In addition to ENIAC and EDVAC mentioned earlier, there are other representative machines of the first generation of computers, such as UNIVAC I. UNIVAC I was the first commercial computer, developed by Remington Rand in 1951. It was used for data processing, such as census data processing and business statistics, and achieved certain success in the commercial field.​

Applications​

The first generation of computers was mainly used in scientific research and military fields. For example, they were used to calculate artillery firing tables, predict weather, and conduct nuclear energy research. Due to their high cost and limited performance, their applications in the commercial field were relatively limited.​

The Second Generation of Computers (1950s - 1960s)​

Characteristics​

The second generation of computers replaced vacuum tubes with transistors as the main electronic components. Transistors are smaller in size, generate less heat, consume less power, and have higher reliability than vacuum tubes. This made the second generation of computers smaller in size, lower in cost, and more reliable than the first generation.​

In terms of memory, the second generation of computers still used magnetic cores as the main memory, but the storage capacity and access speed were improved compared with the first generation. At the same time, magnetic disks began to be used as external memory, which had a larger storage capacity and faster access speed than magnetic drums.​

In terms of programming, the second generation of computers began to use high-level programming languages, such as FORTRAN and COBOL. High-level programming languages are closer to natural language and mathematical formulas, which are easier for programmers to learn and use, greatly improving the efficiency of programming.​

Representative Machines​

Representative machines of the second generation of computers include IBM 7090 and CDC 1604. IBM 7090 was a mainframe computer developed by IBM, which had strong computing power and was widely used in scientific computing and business data processing. CDC 1604 was a small computer developed by Control Data Corporation, which was more affordable and suitable for small and medium-sized enterprises and research institutions.​

Applications​

With the improvement of performance and the reduction of cost, the second generation of computers began to be applied in more fields. In addition to scientific research and military fields, they were also widely used in business, such as data processing, payroll management, and inventory control. The emergence of high-level programming languages also promoted the development of computer software, making more people able to use computers.​

The Third Generation of Computers (1960s - 1970s)​

Characteristics​

The third generation of computers used integrated circuits (ICs) as the main electronic components. Integrated circuits are made by integrating multiple transistors and other electronic components on a small silicon chip, which greatly reduces the size of the computer, reduces power consumption, and improves reliability and performance.​

In terms of memory, the third generation of computers continued to use magnetic cores as the main memory, and the storage capacity and access speed were further improved. At the same time, magnetic disks and magnetic tapes were more widely used as external memory, providing larger storage space.​

In terms of programming, the third generation of computers saw the emergence of more advanced high-level programming languages, such as ALGOL, BASIC, and PL/I. These languages have better readability and portability, which promoted the development of computer software.​

In addition, the third generation of computers began to use operating systems. The operating system is a system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides a user interface. It makes the computer more convenient to use and improves the efficiency of resource utilization.​

Representative Machines​

IBM System/360 is a representative machine of the third generation of computers. It was launched by IBM in 1964 and was a series of compatible computers with different models and performances. The IBM System/360 adopted a modular design, which made it easy to expand and upgrade, and was widely used in various fields.​

Applications​

The third generation of computers had a wider range of applications. They were not only used in scientific research, military, and business fields but also began to enter the field of education and government agencies. For example, they were used for teaching, student information management, and government administrative management. The emergence of time-sharing systems allowed multiple users to use the computer at the same time, improving the utilization rate of the computer.​

The Third Generation of Computers (1960s - 1970s)​

Characteristics​

The third generation of computers used integrated circuits (ICs) as the main electronic components. Integrated circuits are made by integrating multiple transistors and other electronic components on a small silicon chip, which greatly reduces the size of the computer, reduces power consumption, and improves reliability and performance.​

In terms of memory, the third generation of computers continued to use magnetic cores as the main memory, and the storage capacity and access speed were further improved. At the same time, magnetic disks and magnetic tapes were more widely used as external memory, providing larger storage space.​

In terms of programming, the third generation of computers saw the emergence of more advanced high-level programming languages, such as ALGOL, BASIC, and PL/I. These languages have better readability and portability, which promoted the development of computer software.​

In addition, the third generation of computers began to use operating systems. The operating system is a system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides a user interface. It makes the computer more convenient to use and improves the efficiency of resource utilization.​

Representative Machines​

IBM System/360 is a representative machine of the third generation of computers. It was launched by IBM in 1964 and was a series of compatible computers with different models and performances. The IBM System/360 adopted a modular design, which made it easy to expand and upgrade, and was widely used in various fields.​

Applications​

The third generation of computers had a wider range of applications. They were not only used in scientific research, military, and business fields but also began to enter the field of education and government agencies. For example, they were used for teaching, student information management, and government administrative management. The emergence of time-sharing systems allowed multiple users to use the computer at the same time, improving the utilization rate of the computer.​

The Fourth Generation of Computers (1970s - Present)​

Characteristics​

The fourth generation of computers uses large-scale integrated circuits (LSIs) and very large-scale integrated circuits (VLSIs) as the main electronic components. With the continuous development of integrated circuit technology, the number of transistors that can be integrated on a single chip has increased exponentially, making the computer's performance improve by leaps and bounds while the size continues to shrink.​

In terms of memory, the fourth generation of computers uses semiconductor memory, such as dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) and static random-access memory (SRAM). Semiconductor memory has a large storage capacity, fast access speed, and low power consumption, which greatly improves the computer's performance.​

In terms of software, the fourth generation of computers has a more abundant variety of software, including operating systems, application software, and programming languages. Operating systems have become more mature and stable, supporting multi-tasking and multi-user operations. Application software covers various fields, such as office software, graphics and image processing software, and database management software. Programming languages are more diverse, including object-oriented programming languages such as C++, Java, and Python, which are more suitable for large-scale software development.​

Personal Computers​

The emergence of personal computers (PCs) is one of the important milestones in the development of the fourth generation of computers. In 1975, the Altair 8800, the first personal computer, was launched, which marked the beginning of the personal computer era. Later, companies such as Apple and IBM launched their own personal computer products, which promoted the popularization of personal computers.​

Personal computers are small in size, low in price, and easy to use, making computers no longer exclusive to large institutions and enterprises, but entering thousands of households. They have greatly changed people's work and life styles, promoting the informatization process of society.​

Workstations and Supercomputers​

In addition to personal computers, workstations and supercomputers have also developed rapidly in the fourth generation of computers. Workstations are high-performance computers designed for professional fields such as engineering design, scientific research, and graphics processing. They have strong computing power and graphics processing capabilities, meeting the needs of professionals.​

Supercomputers are computers with the highest computing power, mainly used in fields such as weather forecasting, aerospace, and nuclear physics research. They can perform massive amounts of calculations in a short time, providing strong support for scientific research and engineering applications. With the continuous development of technology, the computing power of supercomputers is increasing, and the application fields are also expanding.​

The Development of Computer Networks​

ARPANET​

The predecessor of the Internet is ARPANET, which was developed by the U.S. Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the late 1960s. ARPANET was originally designed to connect computers in different research   institutions and military bases, enabling them to share information and resources even in the event of a nuclear attack. The key technology used in ARPANET is packet switching, which divides data into small packets for transmission. These packets can take different routes to reach the destination and then be reassembled, improving the reliability and efficiency of data transmission.​

In 1969, ARPANET connected four universities: the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), the Stanford Research Institute (SRI), the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB), and the University of Utah. This marked the official birth of ARPANET. Over time, more and more institutions joined ARPANET, and its scale continued to expand.​

The Development of the Internet​

In the 1980s, ARPANET gradually evolved into the Internet. One of the important events was the adoption of the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) in 1983, which became the standard protocol for the Internet. TCP/IP enables different types of computers and networks to communicate with each other, laying the foundation for the global expansion of the Internet.​

In the 1990s, the World Wide Web (WWW) was invented by Tim Berners-Lee, a British computer scientist. The WWW uses hypertext markup language (HTML) and hyperlinks to organize and display information, making it easy for users to browse and access information on the Internet. The emergence of the WWW greatly promoted the popularization and application of the Internet, turning it from a tool mainly used by researchers and military personnel into a global information platform accessible to the general public.​

With the continuous development of the Internet, various applications have emerged, such as email, instant messaging, e-commerce, and social media. These applications have changed people's ways of communication, work, and consumption, and have had a profound impact on global economy, culture, and society.​

The Development of Computer Software​

Operating Systems​

The operating system is a crucial part of computer software, responsible for managing computer hardware and software resources and providing a user interface. The development of operating systems has gone through several stages.​

In the early days of computers, there was no real operating system. Programmers had to manually load programs and data into the computer. With the development of computers, batch processing systems appeared, which could process a group of programs in sequence, improving the efficiency of the computer.​

In the 1960s, time-sharing operating systems emerged, allowing multiple users to use the computer simultaneously through terminals. This greatly improved the utilization rate of the computer and made it more convenient for users to interact with the computer.​

In the 1970s and 1980s, with the emergence of personal computers, operating systems such as MS-DOS and Apple's Mac OS were developed. MS-DOS was a command-line operating system, while Mac OS was one of the first graphical user interface (GUI) operating systems, which used icons, windows, and menus to make the computer easier to use.​

In the 1990s, Microsoft launched Windows 95, which combined the advantages of MS-DOS and GUI, and became very popular. Since then, Windows has been continuously upgraded and updated, and has become one of the most widely used operating systems in the world. In addition, other operating systems such as Linux, which is an open-source operating system, have also developed rapidly and are widely used in servers, embedded systems, and other fields.​

Programming Languages​

Programming languages have also undergone continuous development. In addition to the machine language and assembly language used in the early days, high-level programming languages have become more and more diverse and mature.​

In the 1950s, FORTRAN (Formula Translation) was developed for scientific computing, and COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language) was developed for business data processing. These languages were the first generation of high-level programming languages.​

In the 1960s and 1970s, languages such as ALGOL, BASIC, and PL/I appeared. ALGOL had a significant impact on the development of subsequent programming languages. BASIC was designed to be easy to learn and use, making it popular among beginners.​

In the 1980s and 1990s, object-oriented programming languages became popular. C++ was developed based on C language and added object-oriented features, which is widely used in system programming and application development. Java, developed by Sun Microsystems in 1995, has the characteristics of cross-platform, which means that programs written in Java can run on different operating systems. This makes Java widely used in web development, mobile application development, and other fields.​

In the 21st century, Python, a high-level programming language with simple syntax and strong readability, has become increasingly popular. It is widely used in data science, artificial intelligence, web development, and other fields.​

Application Software​

Application software refers to software designed to solve specific problems or complete specific tasks. With the development of computers, application software has become more and more abundant.​

Office software, such as Microsoft Office and LibreOffice, includes word processors, spreadsheets, and presentation software, which are widely used in office work. Graphics and image processing software, such as Adobe Photoshop and GIMP, are used for image editing, design, and processing. Database management software, such as MySQL and Oracle, is used for storing, managing, and querying data.​

In addition, there are various types of application software for different fields, such as medical software, educational software, and entertainment software. These application software have greatly enriched people's lives and work.​

The Development of Computer Hardware​

Processors​

The processor, also known as the central processing unit (CPU), is the core component of the computer, responsible for executing instructions and processing data. The development of processors has been very rapid, following Moore's Law, which states that the number of transistors on a microchip doubles approximately every two years, and the performance also doubles.​

In 1971, Intel launched the first microprocessor, the Intel 4004, which had only 2,300 transistors and a clock frequency of 108 kHz. It marked the beginning of the era of microprocessors.​

In the 1980s and 1990s, processors such as the Intel 8086, 80286, 80386, and 80486 were launched one after another, with increasing performance. In 1993, Intel launched the Pentium processor, which had a higher clock frequency and better performance, and was widely used in personal computers.​

In the 21st century, processors have developed towards multi-core. Multi-core processors have multiple processing cores, which can perform multiple tasks simultaneously, improving the computer's performance. For example, Intel's Core i series and AMD's Ryzen series processors are all multi-core processors.​

Memory​

Memory is used to store data and programs that are being used by the computer. The development of memory has also been remarkable.​

In the early days, computers used magnetic cores as memory. Magnetic cores have a small storage capacity and are expensive. In the 1970s, semiconductor memory appeared, which has a larger storage capacity, faster access speed, and lower cost than magnetic cores.​

Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) and static random-access memory (SRAM) are the two main types of semiconductor memory. DRAM is cheaper and has a larger storage capacity, but its access speed is slower than SRAM. SRAM is faster but more expensive and has a smaller storage capacity.​

In addition to the main memory, there is also external memory, such as hard disk drives (HDDs) and solid-state drives (SSDs). HDDs use magnetic disks to store data, with a large storage capacity and low cost, but their access speed is relatively slow. SSDs use flash memory to store data, with a faster access speed, lower power consumption, and higher reliability than HDDs, but their cost is higher.​

Input and Output Devices​

Input and output devices are used to interact with the computer. Input devices include keyboards, mice, scanners, and cameras, which are used to input data and instructions into the computer. Output devices include monitors, printers, and speakers, which are used to output the processing results of the computer.​

Keyboards and mice are the most commonly used input devices. With the development of technology, touch screens have become widely used in mobile phones, tablets, and laptops, providing a more intuitive and convenient input method.​

Monitors have also developed from cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors to liquid crystal displays (LCDs) and organic light-emitting diode (OLED) displays. LCDs are thin, light, and have low power consumption, while OLEDs have better color reproduction and contrast.​

Printers have developed from dot matrix printers to inkjet printers and laser printers. Inkjet printers are suitable for home and small office use, while laser printers are faster and more efficient, suitable for large office use.​

Modern Computers and Their Diversified Forms​

Laptops​

Laptops are portable computers that integrate the display, keyboard, touchpad, and battery into one. They are small in size, light in weight, and easy to carry, making them very popular among users.​

The first laptop was launched by Osborne Computer Corporation in 1981, but it was large and heavy. With the development of technology, laptops have become more and more thin and light, with better performance and longer battery life. Now, laptops are widely used in work, study, and entertainment.​

Tablets​

Tablets are mobile devices with a touch screen, which are smaller and more portable than laptops. They are mainly used for browsing the web, watching videos, playing games, and reading e-books.​

The first popular tablet was the Apple iPad, launched in 2010. It has a simple and intuitive user interface and a large number of applications, which quickly became popular around the world. Since then, many other companies have launched their own tablet products, such as Samsung Galaxy Tab and Microsoft Surface.​

Smartphones​

Smartphones are mobile phones with advanced functions, which can be regarded as mini-computers. They have a touch screen, can connect to the Internet, and run various applications.​

The first smartphone is generally considered to be the IBM Simon, launched in 1994. It had a touch screen, could send and receive emails, and run simple applications. In 2007, Apple launched the iPhone, which revolutionized the smartphone industry with its innovative user interface and powerful functions. Since then, smartphones have developed rapidly, with better performance, higher camera pixels, and more diverse functions. They have become an indispensable part of people's lives.​

Embedded Systems​

Embedded systems are computer systems embedded in other devices, such as household appliances, automobiles, and industrial equipment. They are designed to perform specific tasks and have the characteristics of small size, low power consumption, and high reliability.​

Embedded systems are widely used in various fields. For example, in household appliances, embedded systems control the operation of refrigerators, washing machines, and air conditioners. In automobiles, embedded systems control the engine, navigation, and entertainment systems. In industrial equipment, embedded systems are used for automation control and monitoring.​

Future Trends of Computers​

Artificial Intelligence​

Artificial intelligence (AI) is one of the most important development trends in the field of computers. AI refers to the ability of computers to simulate human intelligence, such as learning, reasoning, and problem-solving.​

In recent years, AI has made great progress, especially in the fields of machine learning, deep learning, and natural language processing. Machine learning enables computers to learn from data and improve their performance. Deep learning, a subset of machine learning, uses neural networks with multiple layers to process complex data, achieving remarkable results in image recognition, speech recognition, and natural language processing.​

The application of AI is becoming more and more widespread, such as in intelligent voice assistants, autonomous driving, medical diagnosis, and financial analysis. In the future, AI is expected to play a more important role in various fields, bringing more convenience and changes to human life.​

Quantum Computing​

Quantum computing is a new type of computing technology that uses quantum mechanical principles to perform calculations. Unlike classical computers, which use bits (0 and 1) to store and process information, quantum computers use quantum bits (qubits), which can exist in multiple states at the same time. This gives quantum computers the potential to solve certain problems much faster than classical computers, such as factorizing large numbers and simulating quantum systems.​

Although quantum computing is still in the experimental stage, many countries and companies are investing heavily in research and development. It is expected that in the future, quantum computers will be able to solve problems that are currently intractable for classical computers, which will have a profound impact on cryptography, materials science, and drug development.​

Edge Computing​

Edge computing is a distributed computing paradigm that processes data at the edge of the network, close to the source of data generation, rather than transmitting all data to a central cloud server. This reduces the transmission delay and bandwidth usage, improves the real-time performance and reliability of data processing.​

Edge computing is particularly suitable for applications that require real-time response, such as the Internet of Things (IoT), autonomous driving, and industrial automation. With the development of the IoT, the amount of data generated at the edge is increasing, and edge computing will play an increasingly important role.​

The Internet of Things​

The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to the network that connects various physical devices, vehicles, buildings, and other items through sensors, actuators, and communication technologies, enabling them to collect and exchange data.​

The IoT has developed rapidly in recent years, and more and more devices are connected to the Internet. For example, smart home devices such as smart lights, smart thermostats, and smart security cameras can be controlled remotely through the Internet. In industry, the IoT is used for equipment monitoring, predictive maintenance, and process optimization.​

In the future, the IoT is expected to connect more devices, forming a large-scale network, which will improve the efficiency of resource utilization, reduce energy consumption, and provide a better quality of life.​

Conclusion​

The development history of computers is a history of continuous innovation and progress. From the earliest abacus to the modern computers with diverse forms and powerful functions, and to the emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence and quantum computing, each step of development has been driven by human's pursuit of efficiency and progress.​

Computers have not only changed the way we work and live but also promoted the development of science, technology, and culture. They have become an indispensable part of modern society. Looking forward to the future, with the continuous advancement of technology, computers will continue to evolve and bring more surprises and changes to human beings. It is our responsibility to grasp the opportunities brought by computer technology and promote its healthy development, so as to create a better future for mankind.